Reference List

            1.  Hauser WA, Kurland LT. The epidemiology of epilepsy in Rochester, Minnesota, 1935 through 1967.  Epilepsia. 1975;16:1-66.

            2.  Pashko S, McCord A, Sena MM. The cost of epilepsy and seizures in a cohort of Pennsylvania Medicaid patients.  Medical Interface. 1993;Nov:79-84.

            3.  Begley CE, Annegers JF, Lairson DR, Reynolds TF, Hauser WA. Cost of epilepsy in the United States: a model based on incidence and prognosis.  Epilepsia. 1994;35:1230-43.

            4.  Gibbs M, Slovis C.M., Maisel JA, et al. Seizures in emergency department patients:  multicenter descriptive study.  Ann Emerg Med. 1998;32:S19-S20.

            5.  Sloan EP, Silva JC, Rosenberg MS. Outcome in adult seizure patients treated in the emergency setting.  Ann Emerg Med. 1999;34:S101.

            6.   American Hospital Association. Acute care hospital discharge data.  1995.

            7.  DeLorenzo RJ, Pellock JM, Towne AR, Boggs JG. Epidemiology of status epilepticus.  J Clin Neurophysiol. 1995;12:316-25.

            8.  DeLorenzo RJ, Towne AR, Pellock JM, Ko D. Status epilepticus in children, adults, and the elderly.  Epilepsia. 1992;33 Suppl 4:S15-25.

            9.  Hauser WA. Status epilepticus: epidemiologic considerations.  Neurology. 1990;40:9-13.

          10.  AnonymousStopping status epilepticus.  Drug Ther.Bull. 1996;34:73-5.

          11.  DeLorenzo RJ, Hauser WA, Towne AR, et al. A prospective, population-based epidemiologic study of status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia.  Neurology. 1996;46:1029-35.

          12.  Krumholz A, Grufferman S, Orr ST, Stern BJ. Seizures and seizure care in an emergency department.  Epilepsia. 1989;30:175-81.

          13.  Survey results:  acute neurologic emergencies.  ACEP Satellite Symposium, San Francisco, CA. 1997.

          14.  Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Lee JR, Rocca WA. Incidence of acute symptomatic seizures in Rochester, Minnesota, 1935- 1984.  Epilepsia. 1995;36:327-33.

          15.  Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK. Status epilepticus at an urban public hospital in the 1980s.  Neurology. 1993;43:483-8.

          16.  Brokaw J, Olson L, Fullerton L, Tandberg D, Sklar D. Repeated ambulance use by patients with acute alcohol intoxication, seizure disorder, and respiratory illness.  Am.J.Emerg.Med. 1998;16:141-4.

          17.  Moss ST, Chan TC, Buchanan J, Dunford JV, Vilke GM. Outcome study of prehospital patients signed out against medical advice by field paramedics.  Ann.Emerg.Med. 1998;31:247-50.

          18.  Alldredge BK, Wall DB, Ferriero DM. Effect of prehospital treatment on the outcome of status epilepticus in children.  Pediatr Neurol. 1995;12:213-6.

          19.  Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK, Gelb AM, et al. Results of a controlled trial of benzodiazepines for the treatment of status epilepticus in the prehospital setting.  Epilepsia. 1999;40:243.

          20.  Alldredge BK, Gelb A, Isaccs M, et al. Evaluation of out-of-hospital therapy for status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1995;36:44.

          21.  Wang RS, Sloan EP, Koenigsberg M, Dorsi L, Rosenberg M. Seizure therapy in the prehospital setting.  Prehosp.Emerg.Care. 1998;2:231.

          22.  Spaite DW, Valenzuela TD, Meislin HW, Criss EA, Ross J. A prospective evaluation of the impact of initial Glasgow Coma Score on prehospital treatment and transport of seizure patients.  Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 1992;7:127-32.

          23.  Abarbanell NR. Prehospital seizure management: triage criteria for the advanced life support rescue team.  Am J Emerg Med. 1993;11:210-2.

          24.  McArthur CL3, Rooke CT. Are spinal precautions necessary in all seizure patients?  Am J Emerg Med. 1995;13:512-3.

          25.  Dieckmann RA. Rectal diazepam for prehospital pediatric status epilepticus.  Ann Emerg Med. 1994;23:216-24.

          26.  Chamberlain JM, Altieri MA, Futterman C, Young GM, Ochsenschlager DW, Waisman Y. A prospective, randomized study comparing intramuscular midazolam with intravenous diazepam for the treatment of seizures in children [see comments].  Pediatr.Emerg.Care. 1997;13:92-4.

          27.  Kuisma M, Roine RO. Propofol in prehospital treatment of convulsive status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1995;36:1241-3.

          28.  Stecker MM, Kramer TH, Raps EC, O'Meeghan R, Dulaney E, Skaar DJ. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with propofol: clinical and pharmacokinetic findings.  Epilepsia. 1998;39:18-26.

          29.  Cascino GD. Generalized convulsive status epilepticus.  Mayo Clin Proc. 1996;71:787-92.

          30.  DeGiorgio CM, Tomiyasu U, Gott PS, Treiman DM. Hippocampal pyramidal cell loss in human status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1992;33:23-7.

          31.  Meldrum BS. Metabolic factors during prolonged seizures and their relation to nerve cell death.  Adv.Neurol. 1983;34:261-75.

          32.  Mosewich RK, So EL. A clinical approach to the classification of seizures and epileptic syndromes [see comments].  Mayo Clin Proc. 1996;71:405-14.

          33.  Lowenstein DH, Alldredge BK. Status epilepticus.  N Engl J Med. 1998;338:970-6.

          34.  Huff J.S. Status epilepticus:  a systmatic approach to assessment, differential diagnosis, and outcome-effective management.  Emerg.Med.Reports. 1997;18:148.

          35.  Treiman DM. Generalized convulsive status epilepticus in the adult.  Epilepsia. 1993;34 Suppl 1:S2-11.

          36.  Working Group on Status Epilepticus. Treatment of convulsive status epilepticus. Recommendations of the Epilepsy Foundation of America's Working Group on Status Epilepticus.  JAMA. 1993;270:854-9.

          37.  Gastaut H. Classification of status epilepticus.  Adv Neurology. 1983;34:15-35.

          38.  Kaplan PW. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in the emergency room.  Epilepsia. 1996;37:643-50.

          39.  Privitera M, Hoffman M, Moore JL, Jester D. EEG detection of nontonic-clonic status epilepticus in patients with altered consciousness.  Epilepsy Res. 1994;18:155-66.

          40.  Faught E. Seizure classification.  Neurology. 1994;44:1555.

          41.  DeLorenzo RJ, Waterhouse EJ, Towne AR, et al. Persistent nonconvulsive status epilepticus after the control of convulsive status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1998;39:833-40.

          42.  Treiman DM, Meyers PD, Walton NY, et al. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Veterans Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group.  N Engl.J Med. 1998;339:792-8.

          43.  Scheyer RD, Hochholzer JM, Mattson RH. Near-patient rapid assay of phenytoin concentration.  Epilepsia. 1995;36:1152-4.

          44.  Shaner DM, McCurdy SA, Herring MO, Gabor AJ. Treatment of status epilepticus: a prospective comparison of diazepam and phenytoin versus phenobarbital and optional phenytoin.  Neurology. 1988;38:202-7.

          45.  Powers RD. Serum chemistry abnormalities in adult patients with seizures.  Ann Emerg Med. 1985;14:416-20.

          46.  Turnbull TL, Vanden Hoek TL, Howes DS, Eisner RF. Utility of laboratory studies in the emergency department patient with a new-onset seizure.  Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19:373-7.

          47.  Eisner RF, Turnbull TL, Howes DS, Gold IW. Efficacy of a "standard" seizure workup in the emergency department.  Ann Emerg Med. 1986;15:33-9.

          48.  American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy for the initial approach to patients presenting with a chief complaint of seizure, who are not in status epilepticus. American College of Emergency Physicians.  Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:875-83.

          49.  Aminoff MJ, Simon RP. Status epilepticus. Causes, clinical features and consequences in 98 patients.  Am J Med. 1980;69:657-66.

          50.  American College of Emergency Physicians, American Academy of Neurology, American Association of Neurological Surgeons, American Society of Neuroradiology. Practice parameter: neuroimaging in the emergency patient presenting with seizure (summary statement).  Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27:114-8.

          51.  Bronen RA. Epilepsy: the role of MR imaging.  AJR.Am J Roentgenol. 1992;159:1165-74.

          52.  Privitera MD, Strawsburg RH. Electroencephalographic monitoring in the emergency department.  Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1994;12:1089-100.

          53.  Vespa PM, Nuwer MR, Nenov V, et al. Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring.  J.Neurosurg. 1999;91:750-60.

          54.  Cloyd JC, Gumnit RJ, McLain LW, Jr. Status epilepticus. The role of intravenous phenytoin.  JAMA. 1980;244:1479-81.

          55.  Leppik IE, Derivan AT, Homan RW, Walker J, Ramsay RE, Patrick B. Double-blind study of lorazepam and diazepam in status epilepticus.  JAMA. 1983;249:1452-4.

          56.  Treiman DM. The role of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus.  Neurology. 1990;40:32-42.

          57.  Giroud M, Gras D, Escousse A, Dumas R, Venaud G. Use of injectable valproic acid in status epilepticus.  Drug Investigation. 1993;5:154-9.

          58.  Appleton R, Sweeney A, Choonara I, Robson J, Molyneux E. Lorazepam versus diazepam in the acute treatment of epileptic seizures and status epilepticus.  Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37:682-8.

          59.  Treiman DM. Pharmacokinetics and clinical use of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1989;30 Suppl 2:S4-10.

          60.  Levy RJ, Krall RL. Treatment of status epilepticus with lorazepam.  Arch Neurol. 1984;41:605-11.

          61.  Chiulli DA, Terndrup TE, Kanter RK. The influence of diazepam or lorazepam on the frequency of endotracheal intubation in childhood status epilepticus [see comments].  J Emerg Med. 1991;9:13-7.

          62.  Ramsay RE, DeToledo J. Intravenous administration of fosphenytoin: options for the management of seizures.  Neurology. 1996;46:S17-9.

          63.  Kugler AR, Knapp LE, Eldon MA. Attainment of therapeutic phenytoin concentrations following administration of loading doses of fosphenytoin: a meta analysis.  Neurology. 1996;46:A176.

          64.  Ramsay RE, Lowe ML, DeToledo JC, Cilavizza N, Pryor F. Pharmacokinetics and safety of high dose, rapid infusion of IV valproic acid (Depacon).  Neurology. 1999;52:A523.

          65.  Wheless J, Venkataraman V. Safety of rapid intravenous loading doses of valproate in children.  Ann of Neurology. 1998;44:538.

          66.  LeDuc TJ, Goellner WE, el-Sanadi N. Out-of-hospital midazolam for status epilepticus [letter].  Ann Emerg Med. 1996;28:377.

          67.  Raines A, Henderson TR, Swinyard EA, Dretchen KL. Comparison of midazolam and diazepam by the intramuscular route for the control of seizures in a mouse model of status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1990;31:313-7.

          68.  Kendall JL, Reynolds M, Goldberg R. Intranasal midazolam in patients with status epilepticus.  Ann Emerg Med. 1997;29:415-7.

          69.  Scott RC, Besag FM, Neville BG. Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomised trial.  Lancet. 1999;353:623-6.

          70.  Diastat (diazepam rectal gel) prescribing information.  1997. San Francisco, CA, Athena Sciences.

          71.  Cereghino JJ, Mitchell WG, Murphy J, Kriel RL, Rosenfeld WE, Trevathan E. Treating repetitive seizures with a rectal diazepam formulation: a randomized study. The North American Diastat Study Group.  Neurology. 1998;51:1274-82.

          72.  Walsh-Kelly CM, Berens RJ, Glaeser PW, Losek JD. Intraosseous infusion of phenytoin.  Am J Emerg Med. 1986;4:523-4.

          73.  MacDonald MG, Getson PR, Glasgow AM, Miller MK, Boeckx RL, Johnson EL. Propylene glycol: increased incidence of seizures in low birth weight infants.  Pediatrics. 1987;79:622-5.

          74.  Goff DA, Spunt AL, Jung D, Bellur SN, Fischer JH. Absorption characteristics of three phenytoin sodium products after administration of oral loading doses.  Clin Pharm. 1984;3:634-8.

          75.  Jung D, Powell JR, Walson P, Perrier D. Effect of dose on phenytoin absorption.  Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1980;28:479-85.

          76.  Osborn HH, Zisfein J, Sparano R. Single-dose oral phenytoin loading.  Ann Emerg Med. 1987;16:407-12.

          77.  Binder L, Trujillo J, Parker D, Cuetter A. Association of intravenous phenytoin toxicity with demographic, clinical, and dosing parameters.  Am J Emerg Med. 1996;14:398-401.

          78.  Jordan KG. Status epilepticus. A perspective from the neuroscience intensive care unit.  Neurosurg Clin N Am. 1994;5:671-86.

          79.  Spengler RF, Arrowsmith JB, Kilarski DJ, Buchanan C, Von Behren L, Graham DR. Severe soft-tissue injury following intravenous infusion of phenytoin. Patient and drug administration risk factors [see comments].  Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:1329-33.

          80.  Browne TR, Kugler AR, Eldon MA. Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of fosphenytoin.  Neurology. 1996;46:S3-7.

          81.  Allen FH, Runge JW, Legarda S. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetis of intravenous fosphenytoin (Cerebyx) in status epilepticus.  Epilepsia. 1993;36:90.

          82.  Kugler AR, Olson SC, Webb CL, Annesley TM. Cross-reactivity of fosphenytoin (Cerebyx) in 2 human phenytoin immnnoassays.  Pharm Res. 1994;11:S102.

          83.  Magar R, Marchetti A, Fischer J, Sloan EP, Fischer P. A pharmacoeconomic evaluation of intravenous posphenytoin versus intravenous phenytoin in emergency departments.  Clin Ther. 1996;18:953-966.

          84.  Wilder BJ, Campbell K, Ramsay RE, et al. Safety and tolerance of multiple doses of intramuscular fosphenytoin substituted for oral phenytoin in epilepsy or neurosurgery.  Arch Neurol. 1996;53:764-8.

          85.  Dean JC, Smith KRJ, Boucher BA, Michie DD, Kugler AR, Marriott J. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetics of intramuscular fosphenytoin, a phenytoin prodrug, in neurosurgery patients.  Epilepsia. 1993;34:111-111.

          86.  Garnett WR, Kugler AR, O'Hara KA, Driscoll SM, Pellock JM. Pharmacokinetics of fosphenytoin and phenytoin following intramuscular administration of fosphenytoin substituted for oral phenytoin in epileptic patients.  Neurology. 1995;45:A248-A248.

          87.  Jagoda A, Riggio S. Refractory status epilepticus in adults.  Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1337-48.

          88.  Van Ness PC. Pentobarbital and EEG burst suppression in treatment of status epilepticus refractory to benzodiazepines and phenytoin.  Epilepsia. 1990;31:61-7.

          89.  Patrias JM, Gates JR, Ritter FJ. Safety of intravenous valproate.  Epilepsia. 1993;34:111-111.

          90.  Naritoku DK, Mueed S. Intravenous loading of valproate for epilepsy.  Clin Neuropharmacol. 1999;22:102-6.

          91.  Wallace SJ. First tonic-clonic seizures in childhood.  Lancet. 1997;349:1009-12.

          92.  Pellock JM. Treatment of seizures and epilepsy in children and adolescents.  Neurology. 1998;51:S8-14.

          93.  Venkataraman V, Wheless JW. Safety of rapid intravenous infusion of valproate loading doses in epilepsy patients.  Epilepsy Res. 1999;35:147-53.

          94.  Wheless J, Venkataraman V. Safety of high intravenous valproate loading doses in epilepsy patients.  J.Epilepsy. 1998;11:319-24.

          95.  Sheth RD, Gidal BE. Intravenous valproic acid for myoclonic status epilepticus.  Neurology 2000;54:1201.

          96.  Kaplan PW. Intravenous valproate treatment of generalized nonconvulsive status epilepticus.  Clin Electroencephalogr. 1999;30:1-4.

          97.  Hovinga CA, Chicella MF, Rose DF, Eades SK, Dalton JT, Phelps SJ. Use of intravenous valproate in three pediatric patients with nonconvulsive or convulsive status epilepticus.  Ann Pharmacother. 1999;33:579-84.

          98.  Walker IA, Slovis CM. Lidocaine in the treatment of status epilepticus.  Acad Emerg Med. 1997;4:918-22.

          99.  Bleck TP. Refractory status epilepticus.  Neurology Chronicle. 1992;2:1-4.

        100.  Borgeat A, Wilder-Smith OH, Jallon P, Suter PM. Propofol in the management of refractory status epilepticus: a case report [see comments].  Intensive Care Med. 1994;20:148-9.

        101.  Shorvon S. Tonic clonic status epilepticus.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56:125-34.

        102.  Kumar A, Bleck TP. Intravenous midazolam for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus.  Crit.Care Med. 1992;20:483-8.

        103.  Labar DR, Ali A, Root J. High-dose intravenous lorazepam for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus.  Neurology. 1994;44:1400-3.

        104.  Lal KR, Raj AG, Chacko A, Joshi R, Seif EM. Continuous midazolam infusion as treatment of status epilepticus.  Arch.Dis.Child. 1997;76:445-8.

        105.  Huff JS, Bleck TP. Propofol and midazolam in status epilepticus.  Acad Emerg Med. 1996;3:179.

        106.  Hauser WA. The prevalence and incidence of convulsive disorders in children.  Epilepsia. 1994;35 Suppl 2:S1-6.

        107.  Phillips SA, Shanahan RJ. Etiology and mortality of status epilepticus in children. A recent update.  Arch Neurol. 1989;46:74-6.

        108.  Farrar HC, Chande VT, Fitzpatrick DF, Shema SJ. Hyponatremia as the cause of seizures in infants: a retrospective analysis of incidence, severity, and clinical predictors.  Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26:42-8.

        109.  Mott SH, Packer RJ, Soldin SJ. Neurologic manifestations of cocaine exposure in childhood.  Pediatrics. 1994;93:557-60.

        110.  Rivkin M, Gilmore HE. Generalized seizures in an infant due to environmentally acquired cocaine.  Pediatrics. 1989;84:1100-2.

        111.  Practice parameter: the neurodiagnostic evaluation of the child with a first simple febrile seizure. American Academy of Pediatrics. Provisional Committee on Quality Improvement, Subcommittee on Febrile Seizures.  Pediatrics. 1996;97:769-72.

        112.  Adams WG, Deaver KA, Cochi SL, et al. Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era [see comments].  JAMA. 1993;269:221-6.

        113.  Jagoda A, Riggio S. Emergency department approach to managing seizures in pregnancy.  Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20:80-5.

        114.  Eclampsia Trial Collaborative Group. Which anticonvulsant for women with eclampsia? Evidence from the Collaborative Eclampsia Trial.  Lancet. 1995;345:1455-63.

        115.  Lucas MJ, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG. A comparison of magnesium sulfate with phenytoin for the prevention of eclampsia.  N Engl.J Med. 1995;333:201-5.

        116.  Arboix A, Comes E, Massons J, Garcia L, Oliveres M. Relevance of early seizures for in-hospital mortality in acute cerebrovascular disease.  Neurology. 1996;47:1429-35.

        117.  Giroud M, Gras P, Fayolle H, Andre N, Soichot P, Dumas R. Early seizures after acute stroke: a study of 1,640 cases.  Epilepsia. 1994;35:959-64.

        118.  So EL, Annegers JF, Hauser WA, O'Brien PC, Whisnant JP. Population-based study of seizure disorders after cerebral infarction.  Neurology. 1996;46:350-5.

        119.  Pinto AN, Canhao P, Ferro JM. Seizures at the onset of subarachnoid haemorrhage.  J Neurol. 1996;243:161-4.

        120.  Lewis RJ, Yee L, Inkelis SH, Gilmore D. Clinical predictors of post-traumatic seizures in children with head trauma.  Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1114-8.

        121.  Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, Keihm J, Chabal S, Winn HR. A randomized, double-blind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures.  N Engl.J Med. 1990;323:497-502.

        122.  Ng SK, Hauser WA, Brust JC, Susser M. Alcohol consumption and withdrawal in new-onset seizures.  N Engl.J Med. 1988;319:666-73.

        123.  Alldredge BK, Lowenstein DH. Status epilepticus related to alcohol abuse.  Epilepsia. 1993;34:1033-7.

        124.  D'Onofrio G, Rathlev NK, Ulrich AS, Fish SS, Freedland ES. Lorazepam for the prevention of recurrent seizures related to alcohol.  N Engl.J Med. 1999;340:915-9.

        125.  Kunisaki TA, Augenstein WL. Drug- and toxin-induced seizures.  Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1994;12:1027-56.

        126.  Callaham M, Kassel D. Epidemiology of fatal tricyclic antidepressant ingestion: implications for management.  Ann Emerg Med. 1985;14:1-9.

        127.  Holland RW3, Marx JA, Earnest MP, Ranniger S. Grand mal seizures temporally related to cocaine use: clinical and diagnostic features.  Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21:772-6.

        128.  Koppel BS, Samkoff L, Daras M. Relation of cocaine use to seizures and epilepsy.  Epilepsia. 1996;37:875-8.

        129.  Lin JL, Jeng JB. Critical, acutely poisoned patients treated with continuous arteriovenous hemoperfusion in the emergency department.  Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25:75-80.

        130.  Henderson A, Wright DM, Pond SM. Management of theophylline overdose patients in the intensive care unit.  Anaesth Intensive Care. 1992;20:56-62.

        131.  Paloucek FP, Rodvold KA. Evaluation of theophylline overdoses and toxicities.  Ann Emerg Med. 1988;17:135-44.

        132.  Shannon M. Predictors of major toxicity after theophylline overdose.  Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:1161-7.

        133.  Merigian KS, Browning RG, Leeper KV. Successful treatment of amoxapine-induced refractory status epilepticus with propofol (diprivan) [see comments].  Acad Emerg Med. 1995;2:128-33.

        134.  Brent J, Vo N, Kulig K, Rumack BH. Reversal of prolonged isoniazid-induced coma by pyridoxine.  Arch Intern Med. 1990;150:1751-3.

        135.  Orlowski JP, Paganini EP, Pippenger CE. Treatment of a potentially lethal dose isoniazid ingestion.  Ann Emerg Med. 1988;17:73-6.

        136.  Wason S, Lacouture PG, Lovejoy FH, Jr. Single high-dose pyridoxine treatment for isoniazid overdose.  JAMA. 1981;246:1102-4.

        137.  Jagoda A, Riggio S. Psychogenic convulsive seizures.  Am J Emerg Med. 1993;11:626-32.

        138.  Jagoda A, Richey-Klein V, Riggio S. Psychogenic status epilepticus.  J Emerg Med. 1995;13:31-5.